Notes:
[1] The White House, Declaration for the Future of the Internet, April 2024, https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/Declaration-for-the-Future-for-the-Internet_Launch-Event-Signing-Version_FINAL.pdf.
[2] The United Nations, “Universal Declaration of Human Rights,” December 10, 1948, https://www.un.org/en/about-U.S./universal-declaration-of-human-rights.
[3] Megan Stifel, “Maintaining U.S. Leadership on Internet Governance,” The Council on Foreign Relations, February 21, 2017, https://www.cfr.org/report/maintaining-U.S.-leadership-internet-governance.
[4] Elaine Korzak, “UN GGE on Cybersecurity: The End of an Era?,” The Diplomat, July 31, 2017, https://thediplomat.com/2017/07/un-gge-on-cybersecurity-have-china-and-russia-just-made-cyberspace-less-safe.
[5] Korzak, “UN GGE on Cybersecurity”
[6] Thomas Lynch III ed., Strategic Assessment 2020, National Defense University Press, 2020, https://ndupress.ndu.edu/Portals/68/Documents/Books/SA2020/Strategic-Assessment-2020.pdf, 227.
[7] Brett Schaefer and Danielle Pletka, “Countering China’s Growing Influence at the International Telecommunication Union,” The Heritage Foundation, March 7, 2022, https://www.heritage.org/global-politics/report/countering-chinas-growing-influence-the-international-telecommunication.
[8] Schaefer, “Countering China’s Growing Influence.”
[9] Brett Schaefer and Danielle Pletka, Countering China’s Growing Influence at the International Telecommunication Union, The Heritage Foundation, March 7, 2022, https://www.heritage.org/global-politics/report/countering-chinas-growing-influence-the-international-telecommunication.
[10] Justin Ling, “The Election That Saved the Internet From Russia and China,” Wired, October 30, 2022, https://www.wired.com/story/itu-2022-vote-russia-china-open-internet.
[11] John Seaman, “China and the New Geopolitics of Technical Standardization, “Policy Center for the New South, January 2020, https://www.ifri.org/sites/default/files/atoms/files/seaman_china_standardization_2020.pdf.
[12] Robert Greene and Paul Triolo, “Will China Control the Global Internet Via its Digital Silk Road?” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, May 8. 2020, https://carnegieendowment.org/2020/05/08/will-china-control-global-internet-via-its-digital-silk-road-pub-81857.
[13] Dan York, “What Is the Splinternet? And Why You Should Be Paying Attention,” Internet Society, March 23, 2022, https://www.internetsociety.org/blog/2022/03/what-is-the-splinternet-and-why-you-should-be-paying-attention.
[14] Adrian Shahbaz, “2022 Freedom on the Net.”
[15] Justin Sherman and Robert Morgus, “Authoritarians Are Exporting Surveillance Tech, And With it Their Vision for the Internet,” Council on Foreign Relations, December 5, 2018, https://www.cfr.org/blog/authoritarians-are-exporting-surveillance-tech-and-it-their-vision-internet.
[16] Michelle Marcus, “Combatting the Seen and Unseen Threats of China’s Digital Silk Road,” Network for Strategic Analysis, September 15, 2022, https://ras-nsa.ca/combatting-the-threats-of-chinas-digital-silk-road.
[17] Marcus, “Combatting the Seen and Unseen.”
[18] Ghalia Kadiri, “In Addis Ababa, the headquarters of the African Union spied on by Beijing,” Le Monde, January 26, 2018,
https://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2018/01/26/a-addis-abeba-le-siege-de-l-union-africaine-espionne-par-les-chinois_5247521_3212.html.
[19] Aziz El Yaakoubi, Yomna Ehab, and Jason Neely, Saudi Arabia signs MoU with China’s Huawei -statement, Reuters, December 28, 2022, https://www.reuters.com/technology/saudi-arabia-signs-mou-with-chinas-huawei-statement-2022-12-08.
[20] Telecomreview.com, February 13, 2023, https://www.telecomreview.com/articles/reports-and-coverage/6777-can-jordan-afford-to-rip-and-replace-chinese-equipment-amid-5g-rollout
[21] Congress.gov, “S.Hrg. 117-221 — Training the Department of State’s Workforce for 21st Century Diplomacy,” April 3, 2023, https://www.congress.gov/event/117th-congress/senate-event/LC68067/text.
[22] U.S. Department of Education, “You Belong in STEM,” https://www.ed.gov/stem.
[23]Information obtained by author on U.S. interagency research trip, March 27-31, 2023.
[24]Kristen Eichensehr, “The U.S. Needs a New International Strategy for Cyberspace,” Just Security, November 24, 2014, https://www.justsecurity.org/17729/time-u-s-international-strategy-cyberspace/.
[25] Tomaš Minárik, et al., “11th International Conference on Cyber Conflict: Silent Battle. Proceedings 2019” CCDCOE, June 2019, https://ccdcoe.org/uploads/2019/06/CyCon_2019_BOOK.pdf.
[26]Information obtained by author on U.S. interagency research trip, March 27-31, 2023.
[27]Discussion attended by author during U.S. interagency research trip, March 27-31, 2023.
[28] Bart Hogeveen, “The UN norms of responsible state behaviour in cyberspace,” Australian Strategic Policy Institute, February 2022, https://www.aspi.org.au/report/un-norms-responsible-state-behaviour-cyberspace.
[29] Hogeveen, “The UN norms.”
[30] Information obtained by author on U.S. interagency research trip, March 27-31, 2023.
[31] Harriet Moynihan, “The Application of International Law to State Cyberattacks,” Chatham House, December 2, 2019, https://www.chathamhouse.org/2019/12/application-international-law-state-cyberattacks/1-introduction.
[32] Information obtained by author on U.S. interagency research trip, March 27-31, 2023.
[33] Kristen Cordell, “The International Telecommunication Union: The Most Important UN Agency You Have Never Heard Of,” Center for Strategic and International Studies, December 14, 2020, https://www.csis.org/analysis/international-telecommunication-union-most-important-un-agency-you-have-never-heard.
[34] Melanie Hart and Jordan Link, “There Is a Solution to the Huawei Challenge,” The Center for American Progress, October 14, 2020, https://www.americanprogress.org/article/solution-huawei-challenge.
[35] Megan Stifel, “Maintaining U.S. Leadership on Internet Governance,” Council on Foreign Relations, February 21, 2017, https://www.cfr.org/report/maintaining-U.S.-leadership-internet-governance.
[36] Ling, “The Election That Saved the Internet From Russia and China.”
[37] The White House, “U.S.-EU Joint Statement of the Trade and Technology Council,” December 5, 2022, https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2022/12/05/u-s-eu-joint-statement-of-the-trade-and-technology-council.
[38] Megan Stifel “Maintaining U.S. Leadership on Internet Governance.”
[39] Ling Zhu, “A Revisit of the Domain Name System After Russia’s Invasion of Ukraine,” Congressional Research Service, March 23, 2022, https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/IN/IN11898.
[40] Dina Temple-Raston, “Exclusive: Rounding up a cyberposse for Ukraine,” The World, December 2, 2022, https://theworld.org/stories/2022-12-02/exclusive-rounding-cyberposse-ukraine.
[41] U.S. Department of State Bureau of Cyberspace and Digital Policy, “Key Topics,” https://www.state.gov/key-topics-bureau-of-cyberspace-and-digital-policy/#freedom
[42] The White House, Declaration for the Future of the Internet, April 2024, https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/Declaration-for-the-Future-for-the-Internet_Launch-Event-Signing-Version_FINAL.pdf.
[43] Makada Henry-Nickie, Kwadwo Frimpong, and Hao Sun, “Trends in the Information Technology Sector,” Brookings, March 29, 2019, https://www.brookings.edu/research/trends-in-the-information-technology-sector.
[44] Pieter Haeck, “The Netherlands to block export of advanced chips printers to China,” Politico, March 8, 2023, https://www.politico.eu/article/netherlands-impose-restrictions-chips-export-to-china-asml.
[45] The White House, “FACT SHEET: CHIPS and Science Act Will Lower Costs, Create Jobs, Strengthen Supply Chains, and Counter China,” August 9, 2022, https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2022/08/09/fact-sheet-chips-and-science-act-will-lower-costs-create-jobs-strengthen-supply-chains-and-counter-china; and Ina Fried, “U.S. to spend $1.5 billion to jumpstart alternatives to Huawei,” Axios, December 7, 2022, https://www.axios.com/2022/12/07/huawei-alternatives-5g-cellural-equipment-oran.
[46] U.S. Department of Commerce, “Commerce Department Launches CHIPS.gov for CHIPS Program Implementation,” August 25, 2022, https://www.commerce.gov/news/press-releases/2022/08/commerce-department-launches-chipsgov-chips-program-implementation.
[47] U.S. Department of Commerce, “Commerce Implements New Export Controls on Advanced Computing and Semiconductor Manufacturing Items to the People’s Republic of China (PRC),” Bureau of Industry and Security, October 7, 2022, https://www.bis.doc.gov/index.php/documents/about-bis/newsroom/press-releases/3158-2022-10-07-bis-press-release-advanced-computing-and-semiconductor-manufacturing-controls-final/file.
[48] Office of the U.S. Trade Representative, “Fact Sheet: U.S.-EU Trade and Technology Council Advances Concrete Action on Transatlantic Cooperation,” December 2022, https://ustr.gov/about-us/policy-offices/press-office/fact-sheets/2022/december/fact-sheet-us-eu-trade-and-technology-council-advances-concrete-action-transatlantic-cooperation.
[49] Rob Schmitz, “Germany moves toward restrictions on Huawei, as Europe sours on China,” NPR, March 8, 2023, https://www.npr.org/2023/03/08/1154315168/germany-china-huawei-restrictions.
[50]Anja Manuel, “How to Win the Technology Race with China,” Stanford University, June 18, 2019, https://fsi.stanford.edu/news/how-win-technology-race-china.
[51] Office of the Director of National Intelligence, “2023 Annual Threat Assessment of the U.S. Intelligence Community,” February 6, 2023 https://www.dni.gov/files/ODNI/documents/assessments/ATA-2023-Unclassified-Report.pdf.
[52] Ann Mei Chang “Foreign Assistance in the Digital Age,” Brookings, February 1, 2016, https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/ChangForeignAssistanceintheDigitalAge.pdf
[53] U.S. International Development Finance Corporation, “Overview,” https://www.dfc.gov/who-we-are/overview.
[54] U.S. International Development Finance Corporation, https://www.dfc.gov/who-we-are.
[55] Shahbaz, “2022 Freedom on the Net.”
